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Diligence is investing my time and energy to complete each task assigned to me. Diligence is accepting each task as a special assignment from the Lord The Story of William Wilberforce and Friends in the Fight Against Slavery By Steve Withrow
Introduction
It was also a period of great moral decay, and slavery was both a symptom and a cause of that decay. The slave trade of the 18th century was the most brutal that mankind has ever created. A huge proportion of the economic wealth of the British Empire was linked to that trade, and as a result, the obstacles that Wilberforce and his circle of collaborators, known as the Clapham Sect, faced were formidable. But as we shall see, their unrelenting zeal, determination, diligence, generosity and cooperation over the course of four decades is without question the prototype for Christian moral engagement in the arenas of politics, commerce, and culture. Wilberforce: Early Years and Conversion Our story begins with the birth of William Wilberforce in Hull, in 1759. He was the son of a wealthy merchant. When William was eight his father died, and he went to live with his uncle and aunt who were staunch Methodists. During this time he met a number of spiritual giants, including George Whitefield and John Newton. William was being influenced, and his letters to his mother reflected the gradual spiritual change that was beginning to captivate his heart. Alarmed that her son might give way to religious “enthusiasm” she promptly brought him back to Hull where he enjoyed all the excesses of wealth and society. His passion for religious things quickly subsided. However, his grammar school teacher was Isaac Milner, and some years later, Milner would be instrumental in Wilberforce’s conversion. At 17, he matriculated at St. John’s College, Cambridge. It was there that he met William Pitt who was to become Britain’s youngest Prime Minister. Pitt became a lifelong friend and a welcome ally in Parliament. These years in college were years of moral degeneration. Wilberforce later wrote of the shocking morality of his fellow students: “I was introduced on the very first night of my arrival to as licentious a set of men as can well be conceived. They drank hard, and their conversation was even worse than their lives.” Soon after leaving the university, at the age of 20, Wilberforce made a decision to run for Parliament. He was a wealthy young man, having inherited his uncle William’s estate, and his father’s inheritance. He spent nearly 9000 pounds to become elected to one of the two most powerful seats in the House of Commons. He won, defeating Lord Rockingham, a rich and powerful member of the nobility, and as an independent, became an active supporter of the Tory government that Pitt led. His ascendancy and influence were rapid. Although he did not come from a noble family, he was wealthy, charming, and a quick wit. Some of his impersonations of the mighty and influential were often requested at parties. His good manners and congenial wit mixed well with the rich political families of London society, and he, along with his circle of friends which included Pitt, hobnobbed with the elite, patronizing the theater to see the great Garrick, and visited the clubs, which particularly increased his political stature and career. During the summer of 1784 Wilberforce planned to take a vacation to the Franco Italian Riviera with his mother and sister. Shortly after his 25th birthday on August 4th, he ran into his old grammar school teacher, Isaac Milner. On a whim, Wilberforce asked Milner to accompany them, and he accepted. Milner was a brilliant man, and in the intervening years since his association with William, had gone on to divinity school at Queens College, Cambridge and received his ordination. He returned to Queens as a fellow, where he taught mathematics and natural philosophy and became a distinguished theologian. Milner was an enormous man, and according to Wilberforce, a “lively and dashing” conversationalist
Upon arriving in Nice, they spent the winter in relaxation, passing their time dining with other wealthy English vacationers, hiking, and partying. While there, he was given a copy of Phillip Doddridge’s book, The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul by Bessie Smith, and commenced to read it. Shortly thereafter, Wilberforce and Milner left the women to continue their vacation at the villa, and returned to London in response to a post from William Pitt requesting that Wilberforce be present for an important motion on reform. Before they left, Wilberforce asked Milner what he thought of Doddridge’s book. Milner replied, “It is one of the best books ever written. Let us take it with us and read it on our journey.” And so they did. The journey was difficult due to the snow, but their discussions were fruitful. By the time they exited their carriage in London in February of 1785, Wilberforce had come to an intellectual agreement with the basic tenets of the gospel. After a short legislative session, the two returned to the continent, and having rendezvoused with the women, continued their vacation through Switzerland. By now Wilberforce and Milner were studying the Greek New Testament together, and as they explored the Scripture’s depths, Wilberforce’s objections vanished, and he was fully and wonderfully converted. His deepest regrets were not that he had been such a sinner, but that he had wasted so much time. He wrote, “I condemned myself for having wasted my precious time, and opportunities, and talents.” He felt a keen sense of guilt that is recorded in his November 28th journal entry of that year. “True Lord, I am wretched, and miserable, and blind and naked. What infinite love, that Christ should die to save such a sinner, and how necessary is it He should save us altogether, that we may appear before God with nothing of our own!” The question for Wilberforce in the light of his “wasted” years, revolved around the question of how he should, from this point forward, invest his time. He knew his commitment to Christ would necessarily sever him from his endearment with the high and worldly London society to which he had become accustomed. He resigned from the clubs, and swore off gambling, dancing, drinking and the theatre. But he was uncertain whether he should continue his political career. He had little doubt that once he revealed his conversion to the Prime Minister their friendship would be over, and with it, much of the successful political alliance they had forged. He wrote to Pitt, and communicated along with his conversion to Christ, his intention to withdraw from London’s high society and perhaps even politics. Pitt’s reply on December 2nd surprised him. He reassured Wilberforce of his continued deep affection and friendship, and then challenged him to remain in the public life of politics. “You will not suspect me of thinking lightly of any moral or religious motives which guide you, but forgive me if I cannot help expressing my fear that you are deluding yourself into principles which have but too much tendency to counteract your own object, and to render your virtues and your talents useless both to yourself and mankind. Surely the principles as well as the practice of Christianity are simple, and lead not to meditation only, but to action.” Wilberforce came to realize that true religion must be lived outwardly as well as inwardly, and while Pitt did not persuade him to remain in the public arena, he made him think about it more deeply. He carried his thoughts into a discussion with John Newton. Though Wilberforce had encountered Newton briefly as a youth, he did not know him, but Milner urged him to request an interview with this great evangelical pastor who had been a slave trader prior to his conversion. They met on December 7th, and Newton counseled Wilberforce to a sense of serenity and conviction. Newton felt strongly that Wilberforce should remain in public life. “It is hoped and believed that the Lord has raised you up for the good of His church and for the good of the nation,” he said. Perhaps the Lord might even use this young man to abolish the slave trade. Wilberforce returned to Parliament with a moral conviction that God had placed him in the public eye for a reason, and as he examined the depraved society around him, and became aware of the vagaries of the slave trade, he eventually adopted for himself two seemingly impossible objectives; the reform of manners (morals) in British society, and the abolition of slavery. British Society and the Practice of Slavery The society that Wilberforce was about to engage was in an abysmal moral state. David Vaughan, in his biography reflects the appalling conditions of the period.
As the industrial age roared children were pressed into the labor force to work in sickening conditions. Hospitals teemed with rats, and prisons were cesspools. Labor unions arose with revolution coursing through their veins, and they began to rumble the populace toward the same murderous direction that their French forbears had trod. Poor children wandered the streets unschooled, and orphans fended for themselves. In addition, the Empire supported a burgeoning slave trade of barbaric cruelty. Like an addict trembling for a fix, the plantation owners in the West Indies depended upon the trading of human beings for their economic existence. One proslavery Member of Parliament argued that if the trade were abolished, economic disaster would follow.
Following this statement he looked at the West Indian slave owners in the gallery and, pointing at them, shouted: “These are my masters.” [Ibid, pgs 72-73] Those who supported the trade also argued that unilateral abolition would amount to nothing less than economic suicide because the French, Portuguese, Spanish and others still practiced the trade. They maintained that abolition in England would not end the slave trade; it would just grant opportunity to others. The justification for the trade involved more than just economics; it was supported by the philosophic intellects of the day. Writer, David Shiflett recounts, “intellectuals such as David Hume readily agreed that blacks were ‘naturally inferior to whites.’” He “once commented that a Jamaican black hailed for his brains was ‘admired for very slender accomplishments, like a parrot, who speaks a few words plainly.’” John Locke was of a similar mind, and “wrote a provision for slavery into his draft of the Fundamental Constitution of Carolina – and invested in the Royal Africa Company, which held the British monopoly of the African slave trade.” Voltaire too lent his voice in lockstep with Hume and Locke. [From the article Unchained by Dave Shiflett, National Review Online Columnist.] In this environment inhumanity became commonplace, and slaves, reduced to the status of mere property, were disposable commodities, whose value rose and fell according to their ability to bring profit to their masters. Much of what we know about the slavery of the period is due to the work of Thomas Clarkson, the chief fact finder for the Committee for Abolition of the African Slave Trade of which Wilberforce was a part. His copious research paints a bleak picture.
An incident during the Fall of 1781 aboard the slave ship Zong, punctuates the degree to which slaves were regarded as mere merchandise within the British economic system, and the inhumanity that resulted. The Zong was under the command of Luke Collingwood and his crew. The 442 slaves that had been stuffed aboard were insured so as to protect the owners of the Zong from financial loss. The stipulations of the policy and law were such that if the African slaves died of natural causes en route their loss would not be covered by the underwriters. The owners would have no compensation other than the hides of the crew. However, if the presence of slaves aboard the ship could be shown to threaten the crew in some way, then the Africans could be thrown into the sea, and the policy would compensate the owners for the loss. As the Zong sailed for Jamaica, it lost its way, and the food and water grew short. Sixty slaves and seven crewmen had died. Many of the remaining malnourished slaves were diseased and would not survive the passage. This would amount to an irrecoverable loss unless the captain acted quickly and shrewdly. Collingwood rallied his crew to support his story then, threw 133 sick and dying slaves overboard. Upon their return to England the ship’s owners claimed full value of the murdered slaves from the insurers. They maintained that the slaves were thrown overboard to save the crew from water depletion, but upon later investigation it was discovered they had arrived in Jamaica with 420 gallons to spare. Granville Sharp, that devout Christian and abolitionist pressed to have this reviewed as a murder trial. However, his murder charge was dismissed by the Court of the Admiralty’s Solicitor General as a “pretended appeal to humanity.” This court further held that a master could drown slaves without a “surmise of impropriety.” Ultimately the owners of the Zong lost their claim, not because they had murdered the slaves, but because the murders were done to conceal that the slaves would have died anyway from the “natural causes” of disease and starvation. We can see in both general and specific terms that the morality and ethics of the period were at low ebb, and this moral vacuum became a breeding ground of discontent among the masses. The pre-union industrial revolution ground workers to death as men, women, and children labored in brutal working conditions sixteen hours a day, six days a week. In times of drought and shortage this discontent rose to a revolutionary pitch. Their neighbors the French chose the path of revolution. They stormed the Bastille, spilled blood liberally in the streets of Paris with their guillotines, and executed their monarch, all in the name of equality and liberty. The fear of similar things occurring in England sent shivers trembling down the spines of the British moneyed classes who began to equate the concepts of liberty and equality embraced by the French, with atheism and lawlessness. Into this environment charged Wilberforce and the Clapham Sect as champions of abolition and moral and social change. It would be hard to imagine a more challenging set of circumstances in which to engage their culture in the name of Christ. But engage it they did. The long struggle would require all their character, and all their resources. As we examine them we will see their personal devotion to Christ. We will also see their diligence, determination, integrity, perseverance, cooperation, and courage. They would need it all and more to be victorious in their fight. First Attempts at Reform Wilberforce emerged from his conversations with Pitt, and Newton in late 1785 with a general sense of God’s call upon him. He knew it was his destiny to use his influence for the betterment of those he served, but in the immediate aftermath of his discussions he had more of inclination than direction. Throughout 1786 and 1787 his personal discipline coupled with the grace of God enabled him to grow rapidly in his faith. As a result he made his first attempts to reflect a Christian worldview in his approach to legislation. In 1786 he attempted to soften some of the harshness of the penal code but was beaten. The defeat became a net gain of sorts because of the insights he garnered from it. Wilberforce came to the conviction that the best way to deter crime was to restore morality. As a result he sought to punish smaller crimes under the rationale that punishing the smaller might prevent the greater crimes of society. “The most effectual way of preventing the greater crimes,” he said, “is by punishing the smaller, and by endeavouring to suppress the general spirit of licentiousness which is the parent of every species of vice.” Many also approached Wilberforce urging him to take up the issue of the slave trade. Sir Charles Middleton, who was distinguished as a fellow Member of Parliament, comptroller of the navy, an evangelical and abolitionist was the first. Notable abolitionist writer and researcher, Thomas Clarkson, was perhaps the most convincing. Sir Joshua Reynolds, Boswell, John Newton, Windham, famed playwright Hannah More, and even Prime Minister Pitt all agreed and encouraged him to become the leader of the abolitionist cause in Parliament. But this was not a decision Wilberforce would be pressured or “encouraged” into. He needed time for reflection to hear God’s voice in the matter. One rainy day in October 1787 he found himself at home, alone in his library, revisiting Clarkson’s tracts on the slave trade. As he prayed and pondered, he became certain in his conviction of God’s call and direction. On the twenty-eighth he recorded this in his diary: “God Almighty has set before me two great objects: A scant five months prior to Wilberforce crossing his Rubicon, Thomas Clarkson, Granville Sharp (who had pressed for the murder charges in the Zong slaughter), and 10 others formed the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade. Clarkson had spent the summer gathering evidence on the trade. It would become his custom upon his return trips to London to feed the new evidence to the Committee, which would then pass it on to Wilberforce for use in Parliament. Then in January 1788 Wilberforce was struck down by intense digestive problems. As his condition deteriorated and threatened his life, an attending physician, Dr. Warren noted that the “little fellow… cannot possibly survive a twelve month.” As he deteriorated still further, the only remaining option in the view of his physicians was a dangerous one, to administer opium. Wilberforce protested, but eventually he too saw it as his only recourse. Amazingly, it worked, and Wilberforce convalesced throughout the spring. Throughout that summer the Committee of the Privy Council, by order of the King, investigated the slave trade. This became the groundwork for Wilberforce’s first abolition speech, now famous, that he delivered to Parliament in May 1789. The speech lasted three and one half hours. His evidence was voluminous and his arguments substantial. He empathized with the economic concerns of those engaged in the slave trade, and proffered arguments designed to help them see how it was to their advantage, and to the advancement of their own principles to abolish the trade. Yet he was transparent before his colleagues that the economics of the issue were not the driving force behind his motion. For him it was a matter of principle. He said,
The salvo was delivered, and when the debate resumed nine days later his opponents chose not to parry, but delay. Commons passed a motion to reject the evidence of the Privy Council, and created its own committee to review evidence that summer. For a year Wilberforce served on the committee reviewing anew the evidence of the trade. Then in the autumn of 1790, he and Thomas Babington cloistered themselves spending between nine to ten hours per day poring over the evidence. As the seasons changed to a new year moral hearts throughout the country were praying. John Wesley was passionate in his desire to abolish slavery, and on February 24th of 1791, at the age of 88, six days before his death, he penned his last letter as an encouragement to a fellow warrior. It was addressed to William Wilberforce.
In April of 1791, Wilberforce delivered his second speech, and this time it lasted four hours. He roared before Commons,
The debate that followed for the next two days was rancorous, as the members shouted their arguments at one another. The abolitionists won all the arguments, but were outnumbered. The motion was defeated. The Assembling and Work of the Clapham Sect Following this defeat Wilberforce came to realize just how long and difficult this struggle would be. It was time to reconsider strategy and tactics, and at this point his good friend Henry Thornton intervened. Thornton suggested that he and Wilberforce gather with Granville Sharp, Zachary Macaulay, Thomas Clarkson, Thomas Gisborne and others at his newly built home in Clapham to plot a new course. This was the beginning of the collaboration that has come to be known variously as the Clapham Sect, or “saints.” Thornton’s grand home overlooked Clapham Common, 4-½ miles south of central London. Its spacious oval library, designed by Pitt, would become for many years the gathering place and headquarters for the saints, and it was here that they met for countless hours of prayer, discussion, and strategy. By design, almost all the saints either lived in or relocated to Clapham. They worshiped together in Clapham Church, pastored by John Venn. Their meetings were often impromptu and informal, and Wilberforce, as the leader of this grand collaboration loved the children who would congregate with them. It was not uncommon for him to be engaged in deep discussion about some important issue at one moment, and the next be on hands and knees to help a child locate a marble or chase a ball out the door. They were “an extraordinary collection of talented people who not only shared a common faith and a commitment to unselfish service, but who were great personal and family friends. It was, in fact, the embodiment of the Christian idea of fellowship.” [from an introduction Lord Griffiths of Fforesfach made to the First William Wilberforce Address which was given by Peter Lilley, MP in October 1997. Cited on: www.ccfwebsite.com. (Conservative Christian Fellowship)] The group had many distinctive characteristics. There “were no exclusive membership requirements. They gathered together by virtue of their faith in Jesus Christ, love for one another, and out of concern for a variety of moral, social and religious causes. Their spirit of inclusiveness caused Hannah More to remark that those who worked together on the slavery issue were like ‘Noah’s ark, full of beasts, clean and unclean.’” [Cited by Richard L Gathro of the Wilberforce Forum, see www.wilberforce.org.] They were collectively and individually zealous, determined, pious, cooperative, generous, creative, influential, and industrious self-starters who empowered each other in their respective callings, and took diligent leadership to reform society within their chosen arenas of interest. Taking a cue from their leader, they were generally good-natured despite great opposition and pressure. This hospitable good nature, combined with a love of entertaining served to strengthen their social networks and endear them to an enlarging list of allies to their causes. Their benign savvy and unceasing diligence in the name of Christ made them the most influential group of their type in the history of the world. Refocus
Thomas Clarkson (1760-1846) was a chief fact finder for the group. The son of a pastor, he was an outstanding student at Cambridge, and won a prize for his Latin essay that dealt with the question “is it lawful to make slaves of others against their will?” Anne Liceat Invitos in Servitutem Dare? He was one of twelve men who formed the Committee for Abolition of the African Slave Trade in May of 1787, and was instrumental in bringing Wilberforce into the leadership of the abolition movement. He worked closely with the Clapham Group to eliminate the slave trade. Clarkson’s diligence, persistence, and courage were legend. “He once searched systematically through every ship in England, port after port, in order to find a sailor whom he thought could provide evidence against slavery. Clarkson found him in the 57th ship.” [From the article Aristocratic Activists by Bruce Hindmarsh in “Christian History” magazine. See www.christianitytoday.com] Edward Elliot was the brother in law of William Pitt. Several days after giving birth to a daughter in September of 1786, his wife died. In the aftermath Wilberforce consoled him, and led him to Christ. He moved to Clapham with the desire to be near Wilberforce for his spiritual guidance, and became one of Wilberforce’s dearest friends. Elliot later served as a member of Pitt’s cabinet Charles Grant (1746-1823) was a powerful member of the East India Council. After losing two children to smallpox he converted to Christ. He was appalled at such Indian customs as burning or drowning lepers, exposing the sick, and the ritual burning of widows. He returned to England in 1805 to become chairman and director of the East India Company and a Member of Parliament. The company forbade licenses to Protestant missionaries for fear of inciting revolts that could hurt its bottom line, but when its charter came up for renewal in 1813, the Claphamites mobilized public opinion. They circulated petitions that obtained a half million signatures and gained a “Missionary Clause” in the new charter. [From the article A Long Reach by Bruce Hindmarsh in “Christian History” magazine. See www.christianitytoday.com] Thomas Gisborne (1758-1846) was a college friend of Wilberforce who went on to become a Clergyman in the Church of England. He was a gifted speaker and writer of thirteen books. His books had a wide circulation and dealt with a variety of topics that included theology, poetry, moral philosophy, Christian duty, and abolition. Zachary Macaulay (1768-1838) was the son of a Scottish minister. For eight years he served as a plantation manager in the West Indies, and became so disgusted with slavery that in 1792 he returned to England to attempt to end the institution. He prevailed upon authorities to allow him to return to England by means of a slave-ship. This enabled him to collect evidence as an eyewitness to the horrific conditions of the Middle Passage from Africa to the West Indies. Upon arrival in England he was quickly tapped by the Clapham group as their choice to reverse the fortunes of the Sierra Leone colony, which Wilberforce had established in 1788 as a refuge for freed slaves. He served as Governor for six years, then returned with his wife Selina to live in Clapham where he served as the Secretary of the Sierra Leone Company for another nine years.
Macaulay was also a member of 23 philanthropic and religious societies, and was on the governing committee of nine of them. In 1802 he became the first major editor of the Christian Observer magazine, the chief organ of Anglican piety. Hannah More (1745-1835) was a gifted playwright and poet. As a young woman she moved in London’s most fashionable circles, and counted such notables as Samuel Johnson and David Garrick as her friends. She became serious about her faith in the 1780s and turned herself to social reform. Though she never lived in Clapham she was very much a part of the group, and was instrumental in encouraging Wilberforce to write a “manifesto*” of the transformation his conversion had made in his life, and what he regarded as the essentials of the faith. [*This became his book A Practical View of the Prevailing Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and Middle Classes of this Country Contrasted with Real Christianity, known by its abbreviation, A Practical View] Her primary focus became the education of poor children. Encouraged by Wilberforce, and with financial help from Thornton, she soon organized over 500 children into schools across a 75 square mile area. They continued their work over the objections of community leaders who thought it was dangerous and inappropriate to teach the poor to read. The history of the beginnings of this project is a fantastic window into the inner workings of the “saints,” and to William Wilberforce as their leader in particular. It reveals what motivated them, and the type of life-long commitments they would make spontaneously.
Granville Sharp (1734-1813) was Wilberforce’s senior by 25 years, and as a result enjoyed a looser association with the Clapham group than most of its members preferred for themselves. Sharp was a devout Christian who rose at dawn to sing Psalms in Hebrew, and was keenly interested in Bible prophecy. He was also a self-instructed genius. He had taught himself Hebrew to witness to a Jew, and Greek to witness to a skeptic. When he applied the same scholarly diligence to the study of law, he effectively won some key legal precedents in the cause of abolition while most members of the Clapham Sect were still children. His most famous case was a 1772 ruling in which he won the freedom of a slave he had nurtured to health, and consequently the freedom of all slaves who set foot in England. Up to that time English courts had consistently sided with West Indian planters, that slaves were the property of their masters. Therefore if a slave were to run away on English soil while his master was visiting an English port, the slave must be returned. Sharp’s first entrance into the fray was in 1765. While in England, an ailing slave named Jonathan Strong was deserted by his master. Sharp helped him regain his health. Once restored, the slave master returned, reclaimed Strong, and charged Sharp with robbery. Sharp sensed something was foul in the pot, and began what was to become two years of diligent study of British law. He consulted many lawyers, and pored over the writings of numerous experts. He published the results of his research in the tract The Injustice and Dangerous Tendency of Tolerating Slavery in England. In this tract he made the case that under British common law slavery had never been tolerated on the shores of England, therefore, once a man stepped on British soil he was free, the property rights of slaveholders not withstanding. Now fully armed, in 1772 Sharp brought to the courts the case of another runaway slave named James Somerset who had been cruelly beaten and abandoned by his West Indian master. Chief Justice Mansfield tried to avoid ruling on the case, and used his considerable influence to convince the disputants to drop it, but they would not. On June 22nd he delivered his historic verdict. It took but four sentences for Mansfield to establish the basis of his decision, which obliterated the rights of slaveholders within the confines of the British Isles:
Though the ruling did not affect the colonies, slavery was now illegal throughout the British Isles, and Granville Sharp, with all his hard won expertise, became one of Wilberforce’s early tutors on abolition. John Shore (Lord Teignmouth) (1751-1834) served as Governor General of India. After his retirement in 1802 he settled in Clapham where he became an active member. For many years he served as president of the Bible Society. James Stephen (1758-1832) served as Master-in-Chancery* and authored several books, among them are Slavery in the British West Indies, and The War in Disguise. He served as a Member of Parliament but eventually resigned in frustration when his slave registry agreement went unenforced. The bill was crafted to halt the illegal smuggling of slaves by requiring the West Indian colonies to keep a registry of all slaves in their dominion. Though the colonies eventually assented, they never intended to enforce the law. Stephen was intense, and was at times direct in his criticism of Wilberforce’s leadership of the abolition cause. He once critiqued one of Wilberforce’s abolition speeches by saying, “Your great defect has always been want of preparation in cases that demand it… No man does so little justice to his own powers. That you stand so high as you do is because you could stand much higher if you would—that is, if you could and would take time to arrange your matter.” [Ibid. p.139] Wilberforce seemed to appreciate Stephen’s candor, and on another occasion wrote this reply:
[*Note: The Chancery was a division of the High Court of Justice in England and Wales, presided over by the Lord High Chancellor of England. A Master in Chancery was an officer of the courts of equity, who acted as an assistant to the chancellor or judge. His duty was to inquire into various matters referred to him and report upon them to the court.] Henry Thornton (1760-1815) was a very successful banker and the son of a banker. He also served as a Member of Parliament, and was William Wilberforce’s closest friend. It was in Thornton’s spacious home that the Clapham Sect first met, and continued to meet for many years until his death in 1815. For the first five years after the construction of his home, Wilberforce and Thornton lived together until Wilberforce’s marriage to Barbara Spooner. He and Barbara then moved into Bloomfield, one of two other houses built on the grounds of the Thornton estate. The 2nd home was leased to Charles Grant, another Member of Parliament, and Director of the East India Company. Thornton achieved his wealth as a merchant banker, and his prosperity was matched only by his generosity. He divested himself of great wealth for the cause of Christ, giving away six-sevenths of his income until his marriage and one third afterward. He was a wise, prudent, and diligent financial counselor, and his value to the diverse philanthropic efforts of the saints can hardly be overstated. He served as the treasurer for many philanthropic societies, taking great steps to insure their long-term financial footing and success, and was a valued counselor to numerous others. Perhaps his greatest work was in directing the financial affairs of the Sierra Leone Company, which oversaw work of this colony, established as a refuge for freed slaves. John Venn (1759-1813) was the rector of the parish church in Clapham. His zeal for good works was such that he “once lamented a drawback of entering heaven might be the lost opportunities to do good: ‘There will be no sick to visit, no naked to clothe, no afflicted to relieve, no weak to succor, no faint to encourage, no corrupt to rebuke or profligate to reclaim.’” [cited by Bruce Hindmarsh in his article Aristocratic Activists from Christian History magazine. See www.christianitytoday.com] He was a diligent shepherd of his parish. In an era when education was a luxury of the more monied classes, he saw to it that every child in Clapham received receive a free education. This was accomplished by the generosity of himself and his friends who supported six local schools. Pastor Venn was instrumental in forming the Society for Bettering the Conditions of the Poor. He was also the founding chairman of the Church Missionary Society, a thoroughly evangelical outreach of the Anglican Church. And in an era when vaccinations were sometimes fatal*, the Venn family was the first in the parish to be vaccinated against smallpox as an example to the parish. [*It was a smallpox vaccination that took the life of the famed American pastor and theologian Jonathan Edwards in 1758, after he too took leadership in his community to be vaccinated.] William Wilberforce (1759-1833) was the central connection and unifying hub of the Clapham Sect from whom the others radiated, and around whom they rallied and drew strength. To this point in our story we have focused primarily upon the first of his two great objects; the abolition of the slave trade, but even if he had never chosen to engage the first object, his tireless devotion to the second, the reformation of manners, would rank him as possessing a humanitarian greatness seldom equaled by the best of men. As we review Wilberforce’s life we see that he approached the reformation of manners in four ways. The first was through legislation. Wilberforce addressed labor conditions on multiple fronts; many opposed the exploitation of children. He supported or introduced legislation to prevent cruelty to animals, ban bull fighting and bear baiting, ban dueling and blood sports, suspend the lottery and more. Any attempt to achieve morality through the political process might seem strange to modern ears, but Wilberforce was quite candid before Parliament that his primary motivation in such issues as the elimination of slavery, the admission of missionaries to India, and other moral issues of the day stemmed primarily from his Christian beliefs. He expressed openly in Parliamentary debate that Britain was accountable to the Almighty for its actions and that he was endeavoring to remove the blight of her sins through positive moral legislation. He pursued his Christian agenda for the good of the country. For many, politics is a game where back scratching, influence peddling, and favors are the rule of the day, and where principle is subordinate to friendships and alliances. Like everyone, Wilberforce had his friends and allies, but his conscience dictated that moral principle superceded friendship, even when it destined him to personal turmoil. One such instance illustrates this profoundly. In February 1805 William Pitt’s most coveted advisor, Lord Melville (Dundas), endured impeachment for allowing the misappropriation of funds by his subordinates. Melville was Pitt’s right hand; he kept the Scots loyal, managed the House, and had rebuilt the navy. Many spoke to the House’s resolution of censure. Knowing full well that in moral issues his voice was often decisive, and that his silence might save Melville and aid his dear friend Pitt, Wilberforce gathered himself to speak. As he rose, his eye met the imploring gaze of his beloved Pitt. “It required no little effort to resist the fascination of that penetrating eye,” he later recounted, but once he refocused upon the principle involved his voice was unequivocal. There was not “language sufficiently strong to express my utter detestation of such conduct.” Thus induced, the resolution passed. Pitt was stricken with emotion. “The man who was known as a paragon of self-composure—lost himself. He broke down in tears and was ushered out of the House by his supporters.” [Statesman and Saint, p. 208] Wilberforce was never unaffected by the consequences of his principles. Here was a man he had loved profoundly since college; a man he longed to introduce to Christ. After Pitt’s death in 1806, he wrote to Muncaster, “I own that I have a thousand times wished and hoped that a quiet interval would be afforded him (Pitt), perhaps in the evening of life, in which he and I might confer freely on the most important of all subjects. But the scene is closed forever.” [Ibid. p. 196] At another point he expressed the high cost of being a principled legislator. “No one who has not seen a good deal of public life and felt how painful and difficult it is to differ widely from those with whom you wish to agree, can judge at what an expense of feeling such duties are performed.” [Ibid. p. 207] Nevertheless his purpose was not to be popular, influential, or even powerful. His purpose was to restore morality to British society. Everything he did in Parliament was to that end. His second course of action was to challenge the upper classes to reform by educating them into the true nature of the Christianity they nominally espoused. It was to this end that he wrote his book A Practical View of the Prevailing Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and Middle Classes Contrasted with Real Christianity. The publisher expected little from this tome, but within five months A Practical View sold over 75,000 copies and was a best seller. Many of those in the upper classes read the book and were converted. His third method of reform was to set an example of personal humanitarian engagement of British society at all levels. We have already mentioned how his heart was moved to support Hannah More in her efforts to educate poor children. In the same way he was personally affected by numerous causes and endeavors. David J. Vaughan presents the panorama of Wilberforce’s involvement.
Wilberforce remained the standard bearer for practical Christianity despite his constant physical ailments; he was nearly blind in one eye, suffered from colitis and scoliosis, and endured significant digestive problems his whole life. He also waned from the respiratory effects of consumption. At times these threatened his life and psychological well being, yet he would rebound and continue on. He led by example. His fourth and final approach to the reformation of manners was a private affair, far from the view of the public eye. Wilberforce took care to embody in his private life the same manners he sought to revive throughout society. An old adage declares, “If you’re going to talk the talk, you’ve got to walk the walk.” Wilberforce walked the walk. He was not a perfect man, but he consistently sought to integrate everything he preached into the hidden recesses of his own life. This is the quality that every leader must possess: integrity.
Private Integrity: His Care for his family We have seen how Wilberforce labored diligently for working families and children. He supported schools for the poor, and legislated labor reform, humanization of the penal code, and hospital reform. But the preoccupations of his greatness constantly competed with his own family life. In the space of ten years Barbara had given him six children, four boys and two girls. It was characteristic for the times that men of stature were formal and distant from their children, however Wilberforce was not a typical father. He reveled in the presence and distraction of his children. Nevertheless in the balancing act between public service and family, his family often lost. A watershed occurred in late 1807. He arrived at home and became quite distressed when one of his children began to cry when he picked him up. The nurse explained to him that the child “is always afraid of strangers.” From this point forward he sought a better balance with limited success. Several years later James Stephen confronted Wilberforce and urged him to resign his Yorkshire seat because of the impact that such great responsibilities were having on his family. He wrote, “A man has no right to be a husband and a father unless he will give to those relations an adequate part of his time.” Wilberforce took his advice, and in 1812 retired as M.P. of Yorkshire to assume the more modest demands of Bramber. [p. 139, Statesman and Saint] Now he was free to serve his country and his family without conflict, and he made the most of it. He played and roughhoused with his children, led them in devotions twice per day, prayed for them, and wrote letters that asked them to respond to Christ. The result is that all six of his children accepted Christ, and three of his sons became Anglican pastors. Private Integrity: His Personal Devotional Pattern The second aspect of Wilberforce’s public strategy to reform manners was to educate and challenge the masses as to the practical nature of genuine Christianity. This corresponds directly to his private devotional life. The teacher must first be a student, and Christ was the wellspring of all that Wilberforce aspired to teach the world about morality and life. He was a diligent student of the Bible. It was his favorite book, and even with his limited eyesight he would read it constantly. He also enforced discipline upon himself to ensure that he was progressing in his walk. Throughout his life it was part of his daily pattern to keep a journal as a way to chart his growth and victory over besetting sins. He submitted himself to rigorous daily self-examination, and used the Sabbath as a way to appraise his weekly progress. He attended church twice per week. He kept the Sabbath separate for the Lord. He led family devotions twice per day. And he prayed. His letters are filled with prayers for people and his journal with prayers for himself. His prayers eventually became action. Wilberforce would see a need, allow it to trouble his spirit, and then withdraw for prayer and contemplation. Once he received an answer he would act decisively upon it. We have seen this tendency in the account of how he came to support the More sisters’ establishment of schools for poor children. This became Wilberforce’s pattern. His private devotional life motivated his outward humanitarian expressions. And this pattern was the essence of his practical Christianity. Private Integrity: His Quiet Giving of Time and Wealth Jesus instructed his disciples, “Beware of practicing your righteousness before men to be noticed by them… When therefore you give alms, do not sound a trumpet before you, as the hypocrites do… that they may be honored by men… But when you give alms, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing that your alms may be in secret; and your Father who sees in secret will repay you. [Matthew 6:1-4] Leaders live public lives and Wilberforce, the leader, lived a life of public philanthropy that set a visible example others could follow. There were other public philanthropists during the nineteenth century who in private were nothing more than pompous self-indulged devils. Wilberforce differed from these lesser expressions of philanthropy, not just in degree but in essential character. His public acts were but the tip of an iceberg of private generosity in time and wealth. Wilberforce gave of his time. To his own mind his greatest personal frustration and besetting sin was his distractibility. He fought this tendency on a daily basis, keeping record of how he spent his time. Yet, to his friends, this distractibility was one of his most endearing qualities. “Lord Clarendon tells a story of how Wilberforce allowed himself to be pulled away from important parliamentary business so he might attend to the needs of a poor stranger:
Vaughn continues:
Near the end of his life, Wilberforce assumed a huge debt from a failed business venture in order to save his eldest son, William, from ruin. The 50,000 pounds of indebtedness was equivalent to two million of today’s dollars, and he raised the sum by selling all his properties, including his own home. Thereafter he lived alternately with his other sons Robert and Samuel. He missed his books and garden most, and especially regretted not being able to ask his friends to spend the night or take dinner with him under his own roof. But his private character is seen so clearly in the fact that he gave willingly until there was nothing left to give, and then regretted he could not give more. Indeed Wilberforce embodied in his private life the same manners he sought to restore throughout society, as did all his co-laborers in Clapham. They were people of conscience who walked the walk. Though imperfect they overcame through diligence, persistence, courage, and heart. The Long Struggle Against Slavery and the Slave Trade We return now to finish our abolition narrative. As we have seen, the defeat of 1791 led directly to the formation of the Clapham Sect. Their first task was to reconsider methodology. They emerged with a broadcast strategy of multi-pronged assaults through the mass media; pamphlets, petitions, poetry and pins intended to raise public consciousness and intensify pressure on Parliament.
Poetry was also employed as a way to raise moral consciousness. An example is Christian Poet William Cowper’s Negro’s Complaint, which was meant to be “a subject for conversation at the Tea-table.”
The change in strategy from narrowcast to broadcast proved effective. In late 1792 Wilberforce’s motion for abolition passed. It was modified by the word “gradual,” with abolition to take effect by 1796; nevertheless ultimate victory seemed attainable if not inevitable. But just as public consensus was coming together in favor of abolition, the strong countercurrents of circumstance began to shred their offensive. The juggernaut withered against successive tides of slave revolt in San Domingo, the French Revolution, war, famine and civil unrest. French-controlled San Domingo was the wealthiest colony in the West Indies and the main source of sugar and coffee in Europe. In August 1791 100,000 slaves and ex-slaves revolted. They massacred their masters with ruthless barbarity. The bloody three-way war between blacks whites and mulattos raged, and the rebels gained control of much of the colony before they were finally put down. Word reached England in 1792 and the emotional accounts of the “Black Terror” hindered abolition for many years. Equally as frightening were the accounts of the French Revolution. Especially terrifying were the accounts of the massacres in Paris from September 2-6, 1792. The blood of 12,000 priests, aristocrats, counter revolutionaries, criminals, and public servants gushed through Paris. The Monday, September 10th edition of the London Times recounted the slaughter in a Carmelite Convent.
Pies were made of the flesh of Swiss Emigrants and Priests, and were eaten to the cries of Vive la Nation! Against this brutality the Times asked a series of rhetorical questions that would spell doom for abolitionists. “Are these ‘the Rights of Man’? Is this the LIBERTY of Human Nature? The most savage four footed tyrants that range the unexplored deserts of Africa, in point of tenderness, rise superior to these two legged Parisian animals.—Common Brutes do not prey upon each other.” [London Times, September 10, 1792 cited by the University of California Santa Barbara. See www.english.ucsb.edu/faculty/ayliu/research/around-1800/FR/times-9-10-1792.html] It was not long before the liberty and equality trumpeted by the abolitionists was painted with the brush of atheism that sparked the French. In the light of the “Red Terror” in France, for many, freeing the slaves was a dangerous idea. The uproar in France spilled across the channel creating civil unrest in England that same autumn. By November the French had offered their fraternal and actual support to any country that would engage in similar revolution. And in February 1793 France declared war on England. The unrest compounded by hard winters and bad harvests continued through 1796. At one point a crowd of 150,000 called for civil war. Pitt feared the guillotine. Wilberforce moved again for abolition in 1793. It passed Commons but failed Lords. He moved for abolition each successive year, and was again defeated. Then in 1796 his motion surprisingly carried through two readings. But on the third, many of his friends skipped the vote to attend a comic opera in London. The motion was defeated. This was the closest he would come to victory for a long time. Each year Wilberforce moved for abolition and was defeated with the sole exceptions being 1800 and 1801. In 1800 the West Indian planters made a false promise to suspend the slave trade, only to change their minds when it was too late for a motion in Commons. Then in 1801 Wilberforce made no motion due to the distress of bad harvests and war. In 1804 the tide began to change. His motion passed Commons but was postponed by Lords. The 1805 session brought great promise. Wilberforce moved for abolition in February but support eroded and the motion was defeated 77-70. This defeat left Wilberforce more devastated than he had ever been. He wrote, “I never felt so much on any Parliamentary occasion. I could not sleep after first waking at night. The poor blacks rushed into my mind, and the guilt of our wicked land.” [Statesman and Saint, p. 91] In January 1806 Pitt died. Pitt had been a dear friend and ally but his support for abolition had grown increasingly tepid. The new cabinet of Fox and Grenville sided strongly with abolition. They adopted a new strategy for the 1807 session, and introduced the motion into Lords first. It passed Lords on February 10th,and carried Commons on February 23rd by a vote of 283 to 16. On March 25 the bill received Royal assent and became law. Final Victory In an ideal world the story would end right here. The capstone would be Wilberforce’s journal entry: “Oh, what thanks do I owe the Giver of all good for bringing me in His gracious providence to this great cause, which at length, after almost nineteen years’ labour, is successful!” The world however is not an ideal place, and the battle over slavery would continue another 26 years. The high seas of the Middle Passage gave clear horizons to the trade. When British warships approached the captain of a slave ship had more than enough time to jettison his cargo to the trailing sharks. James Stephen sought to curtail the trade, but ultimately resigned Parliament when the West Indian colonies reneged on an agreement to register their slaves. Despite years of effort, nothing seemed to blunt the trade. The plantations continued in their deplorable state, as the cries of the brutalized echoed their way to England. It became apparent that the only solution was total emancipation throughout the empire. Wilberforce was becoming increasingly frail, and knew he could not carry the battle much longer. He prayed for a worthy successor to the cause. He found him in Thomas Buxton, a fellow Evangelical Member of Parliament with Quaker roots. Wilberforce’ appeal was open, passionate, and direct. I have been waiting… for some Member of Parliament, who, if I were to retire, or to be laid by, would be an eligible leader in this holy enterprise. I have for some time been viewing you in this connection… and can no longer forbear resorting to you… to take most seriously into consideration the expediency of your devoting yourself to this blessed service…. Let me then entreat you to form an alliance with me, that may truly be termed holy…; and in forming a partnership of this sort with you, I cannot doubt that I should be doing an act highly pleasing to God, and beneficial to my fellow creatures… If it be His will, may He render you an instrument of extensive usefulness; but, above all, may He give you the disposition to say at all times, “Lord, what wouldest thou have me to do, or to suffer?” [Ibid. p. 104] Buxton accepted. In 1824 Wilberforce delivered his last abolition speech in Parliament. Shortly thereafter he fell critically ill, and convalesced the rest of the year. Retirement was no longer an option. He departed in February, 1825. Throughout the years until his death he remained in touch with the movement. In 1833 victory finally came. On Friday, July 26th, the bill that emancipated all slaves throughout the empire passed its third reading in Commons. The battle was won. Upon hearing the news Wilberforce rejoiced. Three days later, on Monday morning, July 29th, Wilberforce won his personal emancipation and passed into the presence of the Lord. Though he had no rank or title, Wilberforce was buried in Westminster Abbey, and laid to rest near the tomb of his beloved friend William Pitt. The Lord Chancellor and the Speaker were his pallbearers. A year after his death 800,000 slaves throughout the empire breathed their first air as free men. A statue to his honor was erected in the north aisle of Westminster Abbey. The engraved epithet includes these words. EMINENT AS HE WAS IN EVERY DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC LABOUR, AND A LEADER IN EVERY WORK OF CHARITY, WHETHER TO RELIEVE THE TEMPORAL OR THE SPIRITUAL WANTS OF HIS FELLOW MEN HIS NAME WILL EVER BE SPECIALLY IDENTIFIED WITH THOSE EXERTIONS WHICH, BY THE BLESSING OF GOD, REMOVED FROM ENGLAND THE GUILT OF THE AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE, AND PREPARED THE WAY FOR THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY IN EVERY COLONY OF THE EMPIRE:… HERE TO REPOSE: TILL, THROUGH THE MERITS OF JESUS CHRIST, HIS ONLY REDEEMER AND SAVIOUR, (WHOM, IN HIS LIFE AND IN HIS WRITINGS HE HAD DESIRED TO GLORIFY), HE SHALL RISE IN THE RESURRECTION OF THE JUST. [Ibid. pgs. 114-115] Final Lessons What shall we say in closing to these titans of the faith who through diligent service bettered the destiny of millions? We affirm these words from the book of Hebrews: God is not unjust so as to forget your work Appendix A Chronology Of Wilberforce, the Clapham Sect, and his Two Great Objects
This material is published by the Faith Committee of the Character Council of Greater Cincinnati and Northern Kentucky. Reproduction and Adaptation is encouraged.
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